{"id":1747,"date":"2018-07-04T09:52:24","date_gmt":"2018-07-04T09:52:24","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/blogs.bmj.com\/bmjebmspotlight\/?p=1747"},"modified":"2018-07-05T13:45:49","modified_gmt":"2018-07-05T13:45:49","slug":"a-word-about-evidence-8-data-usage-and-who-owns-them","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/blogs.bmj.com\/bmjebmspotlight\/2018\/07\/04\/a-word-about-evidence-8-data-usage-and-who-owns-them\/","title":{"rendered":"A Word About Evidence: 8. Data\u2014usage and who owns them"},"content":{"rendered":"

 <\/p>\n

In the second of two blogs<\/a>, Jeff Aronson considers how the word \u201cdata\u201d is used in bioscience publications and discusses who owns data and collections of data.<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n

\n

Usage<\/b><\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>Whether we can use etymology or grammar to settle the question of the singularity or plurality of \u201cdata\u201d (it appears to be both), we can determine how people use the word. To do this, I have searched PubMed for instances of \u201cdata are\u201d compared with \u201cdata is\u201d and for instances of \u201cthese data\u201d compared with \u201cthis data\u201d. The results are shown, year by year since 1960, in Figure 1. The plural forms are overwhelmingly used in the bioscience literature indexed in PubMed, and although there has been a drift towards the use of the singular forms, the plural is still overwhelmingly used in preference.<\/span><\/p>\n

\"\"<\/p>\n

Figure 1.<\/b> The frequencies of the plural terms \u201cthese data\u201d and \u201cdata are\u201d, compared with the singular terms \u201cthis data\u201d and \u201cdata is\u201d, expressed as the percentages of all plural plus singular instances 1960\u20132017 (source PubMed)<\/span><\/p>\n

However, what your discipline is, determines your usage, as Table 1 shows. I used truncated address terms to distinguish different disciplines (for example, \u201cComput*\u201d for Departments of Computing or Computational Science etc). Those in the statistical\/ mathematical\/ computing fields are much more likely to use singular \u201cdata\u201d than preclinical scientists, clinicians, and epidemiologists. When each address term was used to the exclusion of all the others (i.e. eliminating papers in which combinations of disciplines were represented), the percentage results were exactly the same. When any of the statistical\/ mathematical\/ computing definers was combined with any of the others, plural usages were reduced to 79% (3506 versus 847 hits), suggesting a modifying influence of the former group on the latter.<\/span><\/p>\n

There was a small variation across different language groups (Table 1), but the data are hard to interpret because of problems with translation.<\/span><\/p>\n

Table 1.<\/b> Preferences for plural or singular usages of \u201cdata\u201d according to specialty and language group, defined by address terms in PubMed<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
Group (truncated address terms)<\/b><\/td>\nPlural usage<\/b><\/td>\nSingular usage<\/b><\/td>\nPlural hits as a percent of\u00a0 total number of hits<\/b><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
All data<\/span><\/td>\n542 504<\/span><\/td>\n47 171<\/span><\/td>\n92%<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Specialties<\/i><\/b><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Pharmac*<\/span><\/td>\n29 735<\/span><\/td>\n1294<\/span><\/td>\n96%<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Pathol*<\/span><\/td>\n18 575<\/span><\/td>\n1014<\/span><\/td>\n95%<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Biochem*<\/span><\/td>\n18 540<\/span><\/td>\n1100<\/span><\/td>\n94%<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Clinic* OR Medic*<\/span><\/td>\n204 448<\/span><\/td>\n13 271<\/span><\/td>\n94%\u2020<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Veterinar*<\/span><\/td>\n8098<\/span><\/td>\n555<\/span><\/td>\n94%<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Epidemiol*<\/span><\/td>\n8476<\/span><\/td>\n1096<\/span><\/td>\n89%<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Statist*<\/span><\/td>\n3205<\/span><\/td>\n919<\/span><\/td>\n78%<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Math*<\/span><\/td>\n2218<\/span><\/td>\n889<\/span><\/td>\n71%<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Comput*<\/span><\/td>\n4968<\/span><\/td>\n2408<\/span><\/td>\n67%<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Language groups<\/i><\/b><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Latin<\/span><\/td>\n54 335<\/span><\/td>\n4113<\/span><\/td>\n93%<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
English \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n225 128<\/span><\/td>\n19 485<\/span><\/td>\n92%<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Greek <\/span><\/td>\n1849<\/span><\/td>\n216<\/span><\/td>\n90%<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Germanic<\/span><\/td>\n50 545<\/span><\/td>\n6048<\/span><\/td>\n89%<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Slavic <\/span><\/td>\n7241<\/span><\/td>\n1026<\/span><\/td>\n88%<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Finno-Ugric<\/span><\/td>\n4044<\/span><\/td>\n536<\/span><\/td>\n88%<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

\u2020 In the clinical\/medical grouping, the data were stable across all subspecialties (91\u201396%).<\/span><\/p>\n

\n

Nowadays everybody is talking about \u201cbig data\u201d, referring to enormous collections of individual pieces of data, more of an idea than a specific thing as such. Some, therefore, find it natural to refer to \u201cbig data\u201d as a singular object, as<\/span> here<\/span><\/a>: \u201cToday big data has an important place in healthcare, including in pharmacovigilance\u201d. If this usage continues it will tend to strengthen the use of \u201cdata\u201d itself as a singular noun. However, the term is still being used as a plural in bioscience publications. When I looked for \u201cbig data\u201d as a phrase in the titles of papers indexed in PubMed, I found over 1700 examples; five used \u201cis\u201d (<\/span>for example<\/span><\/a>, \u201cBig Data is changing the battle against infectious diseases\u201d) and two used \u201care\u201d (<\/span>for example<\/span><\/a>, \u201cBig data are coming to psychiatry: a general introduction\u201d). This is too small a sample for a clear conclusion, but, given the huge preference for \u201care\u201d with \u201cdata\u201d on its own, it suggests that people tend to regard \u201cbig data\u201d as a single entity, like \u201cdatabase\u201d or \u201cdatabank\u201d.<\/span><\/p>\n

So is \u201cdata\u201d singular or plural? Etymology, grammar, and usage all say plural, although there may be some instances when the singular form can be used. My own preference is to regard \u201cdata\u201d as a plural and to use singular words such as \u201cdatabase\u201d to describe a collection of plural data.<\/span><\/p>\n

Who owns the data?<\/b><\/p>\n

The answer to the apparently minor question of whether \u201cdata\u201d is singular or plural actually informs the answer to a much more important and difficult question: who owns the data (the individual items) or the database (the collection)?<\/span><\/p>\n

Consider individual sets of data collected during a clinical trial or the data in patients\u2019 medical records. Those, I suggest, belong to the patient and no-one else. That is why anonymization of individual sets of data within collections of data is important. No individual owns anybody else\u2019s set of data, only their own. However, it is implicit in the collection of such data that the collector also has some interest in the collection. For example, it is proper that a GP or a clinician under whose care the patient came\u00a0under while in hospital should be asked for permission for the patient\u2019s records to be released to the patient, since those records will contain material, other than information about the patient, relevant to the clinician; however, it would generally be expected that such permission would readily be given, unless there were very good reasons otherwise. The same might be true when being asked to release the records to others; in that case, the permission of both the patient and the clinician would be required. Patients who bring law-suits must expect that their data will be made available to the opposition under common legal practice. <\/span><\/p>\n

But who owns the anonymized collection of all data? Those who appear to have a claim to ownership include those who have collected them (GPs or hospital doctors, the trialists in a clinical trial, or those who are recipients of individual case reports, for example, regulatory agencies collecting reports of suspected adverse reactions) and those who have funded studies. The former might include principal investigators, co-investigators, the members of independent data monitoring committees, and other researchers. The latter might be, for example, a drug company, a philanthropic institution, or a governmental or charitable grant-giving organization. \u00a0Of course, the right that such organizations have is balanced by the reciprocal duty of taking proper care of the data, not, for example, revealing them to others without the permission of the individual owner and without taking care to protect anonymity. <\/span><\/p>\n

The question of who profits is intimately connected to this question. It might be argued that the individuals whose data or resources are being used for profit have some right to that use. This was argued in the case of the group of anticancer medicines called <\/span>taxanes<\/span><\/a> after they had been discovered in the bark of the Pacific yew tree. That particular Gordian knot was irreversibly cut when derivatives were synthesized, removing the need to harvest the trees.<\/span><\/p>\n

The linguistic analysis above suggests that data should be regarded as the individual bits of information relevant to distinct individuals, but that a collection of such data can be regarded as a single object. So, in summary, my answer to the question of who owns data is that each individual owns his or her own. My answer to the question of who owns an anonymized collection of data is that no one individual or institution does, although those who collected the data or paid to have them collected may have a legitimate claim. However, in these days of transparency, it would be equally justifiable to take the view that collections of data should be shared and that communally everybody owns them. Having collected the data I have a social obligation to make them generally available. I respect patients\u2019 autonomy by ensuring that the data are anonymized.<\/span><\/p>\n

\n

Jeffrey Aronson is Associate Editor BMJ EBM, consultant physician and clinical pharmacologist, and Fellow of CEBM<\/p>\n

Conflict of Interest: none declared<\/p>\n

\n

Previous in the series: A Word About Evidence: 7. Data\u2014etymology and grammar<\/a><\/p>\n

Read more in the\u00a0Word about evidence series<\/a><\/strong><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

  In the second of two blogs, Jeff Aronson considers how the word \u201cdata\u201d is used in bioscience publications and discusses who owns data and collections of data. Usage Whether we can use etymology or grammar to settle the question of the singularity or plurality of \u201cdata\u201d (it appears to be both), we can determine […]<\/p>\n

Read More…<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":1748,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[14387,14381],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-1747","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-a-word-about-evidence","category-jeffrey-aronson"],"yoast_head":"\nA Word About Evidence: 8. Data\u2014usage and who owns them - BMJ EBM Spotlight<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/blogs.bmj.com\/bmjebmspotlight\/2018\/07\/04\/a-word-about-evidence-8-data-usage-and-who-owns-them\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_GB\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"A Word About Evidence: 8. 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