Human dog bite injuries are a major public health problem, particularly where there are large populations of free-roaming or street dogs. In countries with endemic rabies, the bites of animals are the main means of transmission of this disease and dogs are accountable for 91.5 per cent of all bite wounds in India. Bites by dogs were also responsible for 96.2 per cent of human rabies cases in India. But despite the public health importance of dog bites, there has been little research into the causes or means of prevention.

In India, control of free-roaming dog populations has been attempted using animal birth control (ABC) programmes. Jack Reece and co-authors have previously reported that the ABC approach has been successful in controlling both the street dog population and rabies. The objective of their current study, recently published in Veterinary Record, was to determine if a relationship exists between the reproductive behaviour of dogs and human dog bites.¹ Reece and his co-workers at Help in Suffering, Jaipur, had noted that the dispersal of pups of street dog litters from the dam occurred between 90 and 120 days after whelping. Anecdotal evidence from animal control personnel in the city indicated that bitches would often try to protect their two-to-three-month-old pups by biting personnel.

Canine reproduction has been found to be seasonal in Jaipur, with peak whelping activity in November. Humans being bitten by animals, as reported by the main government hospital in Jaipur, showed a seasonal trend with peaks in January and June; approximately 10 weeks after the seasonal peak of street dog breeding.

The authors found that, following the start of an ABC programme in 1996, the percentage total of the female dog population that had been spayed, rose quickly and has remained at between 70 and 80 per cent since 2003. They also observed that the number of human animal bite cases has declined since then, despite a rapidly expanding human population.

Children represent the biggest proportion of bite patients in India

They conclude that, whereas sterilisation could not have led to an immediate halt in the growth of the dog population, the rapid increase in the percentage of spayed females may have prevented the further increase in bite frequency, if dog bites are indeed primarily due to bitches trying to protect their puppies.

They add that the results of their study suggests that, in addition to the benefits of rabies control, ABC programmes may have an effect on the numbers of human animal bite cases that far exceed the effects of reducing the dog population to the same level by indiscriminate culling.

Jack Reece explained, ‘The ABC programme at Help in Suffering (HIS) was set up to gather data about the effects of such programmes. HIS is an animal welfare charity, not a veterinary research institute, which is why my colleagues and I not only sterilise and vaccinate large numbers of street dogs (3199 sterilisations last year; 81 in the last week), but also monitor the effects and record data on many aspects of the work, including the street dog population and biology. Animal welfare is clearly a driving force for veterinary surgeons and animal welfare charities such as HIS, but it is unlikely to influence political leaders or bureaucrats. It’s for this reason that the HIS team have tried, where possible, to show human health benefits to ABC work; by publishing such benefits in peer-reviewed international veterinary journals, we hope that these decision makers may change their policies from ineffective culling and removal to more effective humane dog population control. As ordinary practicing veterinary surgeons, rather than academic researchers, it is pleasing to be able to suggest that our veterinary work has a direct and measurable affect on the health and the safety of the public – an example perhaps of the currently fashionable ‘One Health’ concept.’

Reece, J. F., Chawla, S. K. & Hilby, A. R. (2013) Decline in human dog bite cases during a street dog sterilisation programme in Jaipur, India. Veterinary Record doi: 10.1136/vr.101079

Injurious pecking (IP) is a ubiquitous problem on loose-housed laying hen farms and is a welfare and economic concern, associated with increased mortality and decreased productivity. The term ‘injurious pecking’ encompasses a range of behaviours including gentle and severe feather pecking cannibalistic pecking and vent pecking. Beak trimming is commonly used in commercial systems to limit the damage caused by IP and, although this is considered a mutilation in the EU, member states are allowed to authorise beak trimming where feather pecking and cannibalism may pose a problem; however, IP is still evident in beak-trimmed flocks. Consequently, there is a pressing need to identify other practical means of controlling IP on farms. The large number of risk factors associated with IP, and a lack of understanding of the relationship between the different forms of IP has made it difficult to provide concise evidence-based advice on how best to reduce IP in practice. Furthermore, advice is often generic and difficult to relate to practical issues on farm. A study recently published in Veterinary Record aimed to overcome these limitations.¹

Sarah Lambton and colleagues, from the University of Bristol, carried out a systematic review of existing scientific and commercial literature to ensure known risk factors associated with IP were comprehensively addressed. The risk factors identified were then discussed with stakeholders (including industry representatives, Defra, RSPCA, retailers, poultry veterinarians and external academics) and, from their knowledge and expertise, 46 practical management strategies were developed to aid the prevention, reduction or delay in onset of IP.

IP was measured in 100 flocks of loose-housed laying hens from 63 farms; 53 treatment flocks employed a bespoke management package comprised of these management strategies and their subsequent IP compared with control flocks which were managed as usual. It was notable that both treatment flocks and control flocks may have been employing a variety of the listed management strategies before the intervention of the team at the University of Bristol. Scoring of plumage damage and observations of gentle and severe feather pecking, vent pecking and cannibalistic pecking were completed and management strategy use was recorded at 20, 30 and 40 weeks of age.

In general, gentle feather pecking was the most frequently observed behaviour, followed by severe feather pecking, vent and cannibalistic pecking and most forms of IP increased in both prevalence and rate with age. Plumage damage score, rates of gentle and severe feather pecking, likelihood of vent pecking and per cent mortality at 40 weeks all decreased the more management strategies were employed, regardless of whether it was a treatment flock or control flock. However, when compared with control flocks, treatment flocks employed more management strategies, had lower plumage damage and severe feather pecking. The successful knowledge transfer and uptake in treatment flocks, the authors say, are the result of various approaches adopted by the researchers, such as one-to-one discussions.

The authors conclude that the reduced levels of plumage damage and severe feather pecking in flocks through employing an IP management package show that such a package can be successfully used to reduce the level of IP in commercial laying hen flocks, with potential beneficial effects on both welfare and productivity.  Sarah Lambton added, ‘It is clear that the more management strategies combating IP that are employed, the lower the levels of IP, regardless of whether they were employed as part of a formal management package.’

Based on this work, a FeatherWel Guide to improving feather cover, incorporating the 46 management strategies, is being rolled out to hen producers, where it appears to have been well received. ²

References

1. Lambton, S. L., Nicol, C. J., Friel, M., Main, D. C. J., McKinstry, J. L., Sherwin, C. M., Walton, J & Weeks, C. A. (2013) A bespoke management package can reduce levels of injurious pecking in loose-housed laying hen flocks. Veterinary Record doi:10.1136/vr.101067

2. Reducing feather pecking: an objective assessment. The Ranger

Veterinary Record is 125 years old this year!

To mark the occasion, we have compiled a list of 10 developments that have had a significant impact on or been significantly impacted by the veterinary profession. To find out more and cast your vote, go to our anniversary website and you will also be in with the chance of winning an iPad mini!

Here are our 10 developments – click through to see some of our relevant publications for free.

Eradication of rinderpest

Rinderpest, also known as cattle plague, was the first animal disease to have been eradicated through human effort and, after smallpox, the second disease to be eradicated worldwide.

Developments in anaesthesia and analgesia

From on a wing and a prayer to maximum control, developments in drugs and their administration have improved the welfare of all animals after trauma or undergoing surgery or medical treatment.

UK foot-and-mouth disease outbreak (2001)

Important economic, social and political lessons in disease control were learned during and in the immediate aftermath of the foot-and-mouth disease outbreak of 2001.

Diagnostic imaging

The ability to see inside patients without having to perform surgery has had significant implications for the diagnosis and treatment of animals, in practice and the field.

Emergence and control of BSE

Restrictions on animal feed from 1988 onwards did much to control this disease, but the consequences of BSE continue to impact on cattle practice and food safety regulations.

Recognition of One Health

The ‘One Health’ concept is starting to come of age by offering insights into the prevention and control of neglected zoonoses, such as rabies, and opening up new avenues for clinical research.

Specialisation in practice

With the growth of specialist, referral and corporate practices, the level of service provided is being affected and, possibly, the nature of the profession itself.

Introduction of the Pet Travel Scheme (PETS)

The launch of PETS in 2000, marked a significant change in the  UK’s approach to preventing rabies.

Growth of the Internet and e-learning

The internet has meant that anyone, not only vets, can have ready access to animal health information. Social media and the web have also enhanced communication between vets, their colleagues and their clients.

Effective antibiotics and anthelmintics

Antibiotics and anthelmintics have had a huge impact on both human and animal health. More recently, concerns over resistance to these treatments have and will continue to affect the way that products are being used.

What do you think of our 10 influential moments? Do you agree or do you have some suggestions of your own? Post your comments below!

Equine lameness constitutes a large proportion of an equine clinician’s caseload and performing diagnostic nerve blocks is an essential skill for equine practitioners. However the opportunities for veterinary students to practice this skill are limited. Traditionally, equine diagnostic analgesia is taught with the use of equine cadaver limbs. However, due to economical, logistical implications, in conjunction with the increase in the number of veterinary students, and ethical reasons, the use of cadavers is becoming increasingly more difficult.

In a paper recently published in Veterinary Record, a team of researchers from the Royal Veterinary College in London, UK, designed an equine nerve block simulator using an equine forelimb skeleton and expanding foam, which was carved to mimic the shape of the soft tissues.¹ Wire wool targets were placed under the foam in the positions corresponding to the anatomical location of the palmar digital, abaxial and low four point nerve blocks and attached to an electric circuit and a buzzer, which provided auditory feedback when the needle had been placed correctly and the closed the electric circuit.

In order to validate the simulator, third-year undergraduate veterinary students were randomly assigned to one of three groups: the cadaver group, which received training in a 45 minute cadaver session, the simulator group, which received training using the nerve block simulator and the hand-out group, which was given a handout and a textbook to study. Students from all groups were asked to return one week later to demonstrate what they had learned on an equine cadaver forelimb.

Taking all the nerve blocks together, the cadaver group demonstrated the highest accuracy (73 per cent), followed by the simulator group (71 per cent) and the handout group (58 per cent). Feedback from the students showed that those in the simulator group enjoyed their training more and felt more confident in performing the technique than the other two groups.

The authors conclude that the nerve block simulator enabled students to learn how to perform diagnostic analgesia in the equine distal limb with a similar proficiency to traditional cadaver limb training. They add that this safe, cost-effective method also allows students to repeatedly practice skills with ease and could be a useful supplement the teaching of diagnostic nerve blocks to undergraduate veterinary students.

Follow this link to watch the simulator in use!

References:

1. Gunning, P., Smith, A., Fox, V., Bolt, D. M., Lowe, J., Sinclair, C., Witte, T. H. & Weller, R. (2013) Development and validation of an equine nerve block simulator to supplement practical skills training in undergraduate veterinary students. Veterinary Record doi: 10.1136/vr.101335

How much influence does someone’s background and environment have on their career choices? Should veterinary schools consider this when designing curricula to encourage graduates to enter the full range of roles for which their skills are needed, such as food animal vets rather than the perhaps more obvious choices of, for example, small animal practice?

In a paper recently published in Veterinary Record, Tierney Kinnison of the Lifelong Independent Veterinary Education (LIVE) centre and Stephen May, the vice principal for teaching at the Royal Veterinary College (RVC), used the results of the RVC’s ‘teaching quality survey’ for recent graduates from 2005/06 to 2010/11 to compare the vets’ background information with current position and career ambition, and to investigate perceptions of curriculum balance.¹ This was a formal part of the feedback that the College collected to inform its curriculum planning. Complete responses were gained from 261 respondents (26.8 per cent).

The study demonstrated strong correlations between veterinarian gender and upbringing location on career choice, and current experience on perspectives on the appropriate  balance of content for a veterinary professional curriculum. The majority of respondents in this recent graduate population were females from suburbs, small towns or villages, who attended non-selective schools and entered veterinary school directly from school. It was found that females were more likely to be employed in and desirous of small animal, equine and other positions (mostly truly mixed small, equine and farm).  In contrast, farm animal and mixed farm and equine positions are likely to be filled  and most desired by males. There was also a significant difference between individuals from different childhood areas; individuals from urban areas preferred small practice, in comparison to those from rural areas who were more likely to choose farm animal practices.

The authors conclude that key demographics such as gender and upbringing location have an effect on the short- and long-term career choices of vets and need to be taken into account alongside ‘in course’ measures to encourage the pursuit of a food animal career. They recommend that the demographic nature of veterinary students continue to be monitored and that further consideration regarding recruitment of students and retention of veterinarians for certain roles through qualitative methods may be advantageous.

Stephen May comments, ‘We live in an age where our leaders mistake anecdote for evidence, and this can lead to well-intentioned but often inappropriate decisions on how to act.  Many suggestions have been made over the years about different ways to select veterinary students, but it is important that any new criteria are soundly framed based on evidence like that which Tierney has produced here.  None of us would ever want to be responsible for preventing an applicant achieving a lifelong ambition, based on faulty assumptions.’

References:

1. Kinnson, T & May, S. A. (2013) Veterinary career ambitions correlate with gender and past experience, with current experience influencing curricular perspectives. Veterinary Record doi.10.1136/vr.101261

Equine hoof canker is a destructive infection that affects the external and underlying structures of the hoof. The disease is diagnosed by its typical clinical appearance: cauliflower-like proliferation of the hoof matrix with a foul smell and white, cheesy fluid – nice! Current treatment involves removing the infected parts of the hoof and followed by a careful antiseptic cleaning program and in some cases antibiotics. This is very time consuming, taking several months, and clinical signs often return within a year. The successful treatment of this disease is hindered by the fact that the cause of this infection has not been identified.

Recent research has shown that the DNA and RNA of bovine viruses (papillomaviruses), which can cause tumours, have been detected in canker tissue samples, whereas no viral DNA was detected in horses without canker lesions.¹ A short communication recently published in Veterinary Record documents a new and promising therapy for canker using a topical formulation of cisplatin chemotherapy, aimed at reducing the length of hospitalisation and short-term recurrence of the disease.² Cisplatin is one of the most potent chemotherapy agents used in human and veterinary medicine and intralesional cisplatin chemotherapy with and without surgery is a well-documented and successful therapy for common equine skin tumors (sarcoids). It works by binding to certain sequences of DNA/RNA, making it unable to replicate.

Ten horses (19 hooves) diagnosed with canker were included in the study. Hooves were thoroughly cleaned, trimmed and kept in disinfectant bandages until surgery, when affected tissues were removed. If healthy tissue appeared a few days later in the absence of any suspected canker, the topical cisplatin therapy was started. This included 10 applications of cisplatin paste, made up of cisplatin injection solution, EucillinB crème and metronidazole-saccharose (two antibiotics). Treated hooves were bandaged until a layer of horn had formed or the hooves were fitted with a treatment plate. Horses were kept in hospital on an average of 32 days and follow-up investigations (between 0 and 14 months) found that nine of 10 horses had not any recurrence of the infection.

Equine foot canker before and after treatment with cisplatin.

The authors, Veronika Apprich and Theresia Licka, noted that, after this treatment regimen, uncontrolled growth of the canker was easily controlled, with a low incidence of short to medium-term recurrence. They also add that in contrast to other cancer treatments, topical cisplatin chemotherapy could be cost effective by reducing hospital time.

Attempting to study a disease considered to be rare may have seemed ambitious to some; Theresia told us, ‘In our clinic, research into canker, thought to be rare, was regarded as a bit of a long-term project, and we were regarded as a very patient research team (if slightly crazy). We were looking forward to having two canker horses a year for this study. Since we have started, and word spread, we have been inundated with patients as well as international requests for information on canker treatment, and our students now graduate with the (probably erroneous) impression it is about as common as pus in the foot!’

The team is now working on several related projects, one of which is an infection study, in an attempt to discover the origins of this disease.

References

1. Brandt, S., Schoster, A., Tober, R., Kainzbauer, C., Burgstaller, J. P., Haralambus, R. & others (2010) Consistent detection of bovine papillomavirus in lesions, intact skin and peripheral blood mononuclear cells of horses affected by hoof canker. Equine Veterinary Journal 43, 202-209

2. Apprich, V. & Licka, T. (2013) Equine foot canker: a clinical trial of topical cisplatin chemotherapy. Veterinary Record doi: 10.1136/vr101359

A recent Veterinary Record publication looks at the behaviour of vets and clients when given the opportunity to discuss animal welfare.                    

Dog vaccination appointments are a good opportunity to discuss welfare/ behavioural concerns

VETS are placed in high regard by owners when entrusted with their pets’ welfare, however, animal welfare, as defined by the BVA’s Ethics and Welfare group ‘relates to both the physical health and mental wellbeing of the animal.’ It has been suggested that the veterinary profession could do more to provide behaviour support.¹

A paper recently published in Veterinary Record carried out a ‘fly-on-the-wall’ investigation into animal welfare discussions, videoing 17 booster vaccination consultations, involving six vets, over two small animal practices and then asking the owner to fill out a post-consultation questionnaire.² Clients tend to visit their practice when their pet is unwell, so a booster vaccination appointment was seen as a good opportunity to discuss welfare issues.

On reviewing the video consultations, authors Mandy Roshier and Anne McBride identified five main topics of discussion: navigation (ie, directing the consultation), medical, husbandry, behaviour and cost. The vets were found to instigate discussion on all of these topics with the exception of behaviour, which was found to be shared between the vets and clients – it was also the least discussed welfare topic. The subsequent owner questionnaire, however, revealed that all clients had concerns about at least one behaviour of their dogs and five clients indicated that they considered this behaviour ‘a big problem’. Only one client mentioned their concern (jumping up on people) to the vet and this was not fully explored.  Another vet asked about a dog’s behaviour around other people; the client acknowledged that the dog was aggressive towards his wife but, again, the vet did not take this discussion any further.

The onus of identifying and reporting a behaviour issue lies with the owner, as it may not be obvious at the consultation, and the authors provide suggestions as to how vets can help to facilitate these discussions, such as developing trust and rapport, having a ‘safe’ environment to encourage disclosure and also creating opportunities to raise concerns.

Mandy had this to say: ‘In addition to vets, owners have the opportunity to access welfare information from a wide variety of sources, not all sources are reliable.  In this study, behaviour concerns were not mentioned and this leads us to ask how, or if these concerns are being addressed.  It is therefore important that vets enable their clients to discuss behaviour issues and provide appropriate support, be that directly or via referral.’

This study highlights areas that could be researched further to understand the practising of behavioural medicine. It is apparent, however, that vets and owners need to work together to provide the best possible welfare for their pets.

References:

1. McMillan, F. D. & Rollin, B. E. (2001) The presence of mind: on reunifying the animal mind and body. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 218, 1723-1727

2.  Roshier, A. & McBride, E. (2012) Canine behaviour problems between veterinarians and dogs owners during annual booster consultations. Veterinary Record dpi: 10.1136/vr.101125

Neville Suttle talks to Veterinary Record about copper supplementation in cattle feed.

COPPER  has a diverse range of biological roles in animals; there are many copper-dependent enzymes that are involved in energy metabolism, immunity, iron metabolism and coat pigmentation to name a few.  Neville Suttle, of the Moredun Foundation and co-author of a recent paper¹ in Veterinary Record that followed a herd of cows with high winter mortality and high liver copper, explains: ‘In the UK, grass, hay and silage are widely but erroneously believed to be low in copper and complimentary feeds are often supplemented with the essential element. Without supplementation, forages will commonly contain 5 to 12 mg Cu/kg DM, cereals 4 to 6 mg Cu/kg DM and protein sources 10 to 40 mg Cu/kg DM.’

The level to which complimentary feeds should be supplemented with copper is the subject of much debate. The difficulty lies in estimating the available copper in a complete diet consisting of components differing widely in copper concentration and not knowing how they interact with each other. Copper toxicity is becoming more common in the UK because copper availability is often underestimated and requirements are overestimated. EU regulations set the maximum permitted level for copper in complete cattle feeds at 35 mg Cu/kg at 88 per cent dry matter. The Advisory Committee on Animal Feedstuffs (ACAF) suggests that under normal conditions, and in the absence of antagonists such as molybdenum and sulfur, which reduce copper availability, the maximum addition should be 20 mg Cu/kg dry matter.²

In the winter of 2005/06, 13 of 46 female calves in a herd died at less than one month old. They had developed chronic, low-grade diarrhoea and failed to thrive, despite good quality care. Samples that had been submitted to the Edinburgh Disease Surveillance Centre (EDSC) detected Cryptosporidium and coronavirus in two samples but this did not explain the high mortality. Three of the later casualties were submitted for postmortem examination, which revealed high copper concentrations in the liver. At this point, the lead investigator Archie Hunter from the EDSC, sought advice from Dr Suttle, who recommended that copper supplementation be reduced and surveillance continued. Three healthy culled newborn male calves were promptly submitted for postmortem examination to establish a baseline for liver histopathology.

Inspection of the feeds showed that mineral supplements were providing approximately 60 mg Cu/kg DM for milking cows and 41 or 46 mg Cu/kg DM for dry cows, both exceeding the maximum permitted level. Despite there being no typical clinical signs of chronic copper poisoning, supplementation was reduced to 45 mg Cu/kg in milking cows and later to 16 mg Cu/kg. For dry cows, the supplementation was reduced to 28 mg Cu/kg. Calf mortality fell the following winter (2006/07) but rose again the next (2007/08).  All supplements were withdrawn in 2008, including those in the milk substitute and creep feed, which had 10 and 35 mg Cu/kg added, respectively. Mortality once again dropped and stayed low for the following three winters, at which point the study ended.

Although many histological abnormalities were found in the livers of casualties, most were seen in equal abundance in the culled, healthy newborn calves, suggesting that chronic exposure of the unborn calf to high levels of copper caused changes in the livers of healthy calves. Other research has shown that depletion of liver copper can be exceedingly slow after the removal of copper supplements from mixed diets for lactating cows³; the results for culled newborn male calves in 2011 indicated that one cow still passed on high liver copper to her calves, five years after withdrawal of copper supplements began. If excess copper was still causing damage, where was it coming from? One possibility is that calf feeds were being continuously medicated with coccidiostat to control calf scours. The medication was killing off rumen protozoa, which normally keep copper availability suppressed by generating sulphide, a powerful copper antagonist; therefore, medicated calf feeds with no added copper could still provide too much copper.

Although association is not proof of causation, it seemed plausible that the reduction in copper supplements reduced calf mortality and liver disorders in young unweaned calves in this herd. The authors reasoned that the combination of high copper status and low-grade enteric infections were responsible for the history of liver disorder and calf mortality at birth.

As the extent of over-supplementing becomes more apparent in the UK, Dr Suttle commented: ‘I would like to see recommended rather than maximum permitted levels becoming the benchmark for copper supplementation and retrospective studies of calf mortality in previous outbreaks of copper poisoning, like the one reported recently  in dry Jersey cows.’ ^{4, 5} He also emphasises that requirements vary, depending on levels of molybdenum and sulfur in the environment, which quench copper availability: ‘Fixed rate supplementation to cover worst case scenarios is asking for trouble with a cumulative poison such as copper.’

References:

1. Hunter, A. G., Suttle, N., Martineau, H. M., Spence, M. A., Thomson, J. R., Macrae, A. I. & Brown, S. (2012) Mortality, hepatopathy and liver copper concentrations in artificially reared Jersey calves before and after reductions in copper supplementation. Veterinary Record doi: 10.1136/vr.10151

2. ACAF (2011) Guidance note for supplementing copper to bovines. www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/committee/guidancesuppcopperbovines.pdf. Accessed January 23, 2013

3. Hittman, A. R., Grace, N. D. & Knowles, S. O. (2012) High and variable copper status identified among dairy herds in the Waikato region by concentrations of Cu in liver sourced from biopsies and cull cows. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 58, 130-136

4. Bidewell, C.A., Drew, J.R., Payne, J.H., Sayers, A.R., Higgins, R.J. &  Livesey, C.T. (2012) Case study of copper poisoning in a British dairy herd. Veterinary Record doi:1000267

5. Suttle, N. F.,  Martineau, H. M., Hunter, A. G., Thomas, J. R & Macrae, A. I. (2013) Atypical copper poisoning in Jersey dairy herds. Veterinary Record doi:10.1136/vr.f335

Welcome to the Veterinary Record blog

Here I will be talking to the authors of the research papers published in Veterinary Record

and bringing you the stories behind the science.

From serendipitous discoveries to amusing animal anecdotes,  I hope that you enjoy the

blog. Please get involved and leave comments.

Sarah

Assistant Editor ¦ Veterinary Record